Water Gardens and Water Garden Designs

Water has been an important part of man's gardening activities for centuries. The reasons for this, however, have not always matched those that inspire modern water gardeners: the great pleasure of growing beautiful waterlilies, fine irises and rushes, for example, or caring for brilliantly coloured goldfish or exotic koi carp. In the past, water often served practical, economic and religious purposes.

Ancient Symbolism

Some of the earliest water features recorded were in the deserts of Egypt and Mesopotamia, where the waters of rivers such as the Nile, Tigris and Euphrates were controlled and channelled for irrigation purposes. The earliest gardens containing areas of water were designed essentially for food production, cultivating lotus, keeping fish and growing papyrus.

As time passed, the rulers of these desert kingdoms brought water into the gardens of their palaces and temples, extensive areas often being used as decorative features. The opportunities that these bodies of water afforded for nour ishing trees and plants, together with their reflective and cooling qualities, led to them being regarded as manifestations of heaven on earth.

Waterlilies were revered by early civilisations, especially the Egyptians, who benefited from some of the most beautiful tropical waterlilies; Nymphaea lotus and N. caerulea were native to the area. Indeed, most of our knowledge of the early history of the cultivation of waterlilies comes from the XIIth dynasty (3000-2500 BC) and the tombs of the village of Beni-Hassan, alongside the river Nile. Here pictures of gardening scenes have been discovered that show gardeners bringing water from a pond to irrigate plants growing in square, evenly spaced beds. A narrow canal leads from the beds to a pond. It is thought that it was in such a pond that the white-flowered waterlily lotus was cultivated.

Waterlilies were not grown by the ancient Egyptians for their beauty in cultivation, although pleasing formal pond arrangements were made, but for their cut blossoms, which were used extensively in religious festivals. Offerings of flowers were made to the dead, or placed on altars before their gods. They were also given by noblemen to guests as a gesture of friendship and goodwill, the visitors being expected to reciprocate by holding the blooms in their hands or twining them in their hair while in the presence of their hosts.

Petals from the blossoms of both Nymphaea lotus and Nymphaea caerulea have been found in the funeral wreaths of Rameses II (1580 BC) and Amenhotep I. The custom was to lay wreaths on the mummy in concentric semi-circles, from the chin downwards, until the sarcophagus was packed with floral tributes. Both plants have been portrayed extensively in the mural decorations, pottery and furniture of the period. Later they were were grown as decorative plants for their ornamental merit alone. We know that Amenhotep IV grew them in ponds surrounded by flower beds in his famous palace gardens at Ikhnaton, while Rameses III (1225 BC is reputed to have grown 'rushes and the lotus ... and have many tanks and ponds ... of the lotus flowers'.

A Different Tradition

Early Egyptian water features would have been very utilitarian, with an abundance of plants, but little consideration given to their arrangement or the value of open water. In Persia, a different tradition developed, which concentrated more on water for its own sake than as a means of cultivating aquatic plants. Behind the evolving water garden, histories of both civilizations, however, there was a common theme: the oasis in the desert, the expression of man's desire to secure himself from his hostile surroundings This is best seen in the Chahar bagh, or four-fold garden, a level enclosed square, which was divided into four by two intersecting canals. A pool, fountain or pavilion was placed at the centre, the canals radiating from this focal point and representing the four rivers of paradise. Adjacent to these, trees, shrubs and flowers grew freely in the four quarters of the garden, being irrigated by a series of decorative channels.

The origins of this tradition have been lost in the mists of time, but the designs can be seen in old carpets and paintings. The overall plan seems to have derived from the royal hunting parks, pairidaeza, and the protective oasis. These Persian designs were assimilated into what is regarded as Islamic garden design, no doubt as the result of the conquest of Persia by Muslim Arabs in the 7th century. The ideas and designs found in these early gardens were readily accepted, being very close to the descriptions of the garden of paradise found in the Koran.

Chinese Influence

Water in China played two roles in the garden: as a landscape feature and as a means of growing waterlilies and lotus. The importance of plant cultivation and its symbolism is best illustrated by a passage from the writings of Chou Tun-1, a noted author of the 11th century: 'Since the opening of the T'ang Dynasty, it has been fashionable to admire the peony; but my favourite is the waterlily. How stainless it rises from its slimy bed. How modestly it reposes on the clear pool, an emblem of purity and truth. Symmetrically perfect, its subtle perfume is wafted far and wide; while there it rests in spotless state, something to be regarded reverently from a distance, and not to be profaned by familiar approach'. Such wonderful sentiments echo the feelings of all waterlily lovers.

In landscape terms, the Chinese used water much as we do today, capturing its stillness and reflective qualities or its turbulent humour in waterfall or fountain. The only use to which they put it that has never successfully invaded our water gardening culture, was to link parts of the garden by water channels that ran beside paths. These silvery guides would encourage the visitor to move from one area of the garden to another. The idea became stylish in Western gardens for a few years during the last century, but it did not persist.

The gardens of the Orient can be traced back into antiquity and have had considerable influence upon European and North American styles. While the view of what a garden should be and the whole philosophy of gardens and gardening are completely different, Western culture has borrowed heavily from the East.

Japanese Water Features

There is something special and unique about Japanese gardens and their use of water. While they may not always suit Western tastes or understanding in their purest form, much can be borrowed from the Japanese tradition, even if the meanings and features are interpreted incorrectly.

Japanese ponds are traditionally shaped like the written character for heart and mind, kokora, although the tendency to disguise the edge or shoreline with rocks and planting can make this less obvious. No doubt, however, knowing that this shape lies beneath the rock and plant dressing is reward enough for the true Japanese gardener. In practical terms, though, the shape of the pool matters little, for all the other influences of the Orient can be brought to bear in creating a tranquil picture. This is very much what Japanese water gardening is about: creating a picture for contemplation, which brings the landscape of the countryside into the garden in a much reduced form.

Most Japanese pools contain islands that represent various features of the landscape, although not necessarily islands. Rocky features that suggest mountains should be heavily planted with evergreens, like Japanese azaleas, and there should be rocky shallows at the base. A low flat island alludes, to a moor and may comprise a planting of reeds, rushes and mosses among a few prominent rocks. Cliffs are created with stark rocks that jut from the water, ideally with a small twisted pine growing between them, while a tidal island is represented by almost completely submerged rocks interspersed with a tiny grassy planting. These are all traditional significant features within a Japanese water garden, and while they are all fascinating, they do not rest easily with Western perceptions of water gardening. For most of us, if the features appeal, we will use them, irrespective of their meaning, but they are difficult to justify in anything other than a Japanese setting.

The Japanese garden also uses the shoreline creatively. Rocks and planting create niches and promontories, and where water enters a pool from a stream, the planting is always contrived to conceal that point of entry. Sometimes fire charred posts, 8cm (3in) in diameter, are grouped together and sunk into the ground along the shoreline to represent old moorings or pilings. They protrude above the water by 10-15cm (4-6in). The shoreline from just below water level to the bankside generally consists of large stones or well washed gravel in colours that complement or contrast with one another.

Running water is important too, not just in meandering streams and rills, but also through bamboo pipes in an array of configurations. In the stream bed, the strategic use of rocks has always played an important role, being positioned to create curves and ripples that have a purpose in the overall design. That purpose is to please the eye, although guidelines were set out in Sakutei-ki, the 11th-century memorandum on garden making, which state that 'the usual places to set out rocks are where the stream emerges into the courtyard, where it curves round a hillock, where it empties into a pond and where it bends in passing buildings'. This advice is still followed by purist Japanese garden makers.

The European Influence

Oriental water gardening had little influence upon Western gardens until the end of the last century. European traditions owed more to the Middle East, while ultimately North America followed Europe's lead. In more recent times, however, the Japanese tradition in its purer form has found widespread acceptance in North America, especially in the West and Mid-West.

The earliest knowledge that we have of water gardening in Europe comes from Homeric times, when the Greeks were said to have constructed nymphaeums. These were grotto-like structures surrounded by trees and containing constant running water. It is doubtful that this had anything to do with the cultivation of waterlilies, despite the fact that the name nymphaea is a direct transliteration of an early Greek word used to describe these plants. Waterlilies dislike both moving water and shade, so it is likely that a nymphaeum was constructed for its decorative merits, rather than as .a functional feature for growing aquatics.

It was water for its own sake that eventually took Europe by storm. The grand fountains and cascades, water staircases and geysers created spectacular effects that can still be seen today. The Italians relied heavily upon sculpture to enhance their water features and had water crashing about, while the French tended to prefer more sedate trickling cascades and vast areas of still open water. These traditions have led to the modern water gardener's desire for sculpture fountains and other ornamentation, and for multiple and twisting jets of water, which can be enhanced still further by lighting to create an even more spectacular experience.

Water gardens have a long tradition in Britain, not as we know them today through our great enthusiasm for plant diversity and penchant for exotic fish, but as features in their own right. This interest grew largely from the leads provided by the Italians and French.

The English Renaissance

The renaissance, or rebirth, of interest in classical antiquity came to England after the War of the Roses in 1485, the enclosed medieval garden gradually being replaced by the Renaissance pleasure garden. Much of the influence was French, and although the term 'formal' was not adopted until the end of the 19th century, much of what was witnessed at that time, and in the gardens where it remains today, can confidently be described as formal Indeed, in the pursuit of ideas for the modern garden, much can be learned by visiting some of the great English houses, such as Chatsworth in Derbyshire. Of course, such water features are laid out on an enormous scale, but the principles behind many of them are just as relevant when the concept is translated to the small suburban plot.

One of the great amusing features of the time, which can be recreated readily in the domestic garden is the trick, or joke, fountain. This is not a true fountain, but a device constructed from piping to startle the unwary visitor. A simple modern trip mechanism can cause the water jet to squirt as someone passes, a prospect that delights children. A tree fountain is another possibility, and an excellent example is the wonderful willow tree creation at Chatsworth. This consists of copper tubing welded into the shape of a willow tree, from which water cascades delightfully, the epitome of inventiveness from the Renaissance period. No doubt, something more modest could be achieved by the innovative do-it-yourself enthusiast.

English Landscape Tradition

The great landscape tradition followed people like Lancelot 'Capability' Brown and Humphry Repton. These renowned gardeners used the landscape like an artist's canvas, creating wonderful, expansive and well balanced visions. The achievements of Brown and Repton are unlikely to be repeated in most gardens today, however, which may be to the good. Indeed, it could be true to say that we never want to see their likes again, for although they created great masterpieces, they also destroyed much of what earlier gardening generations had achieved. Repton's only saving grace was that he permitted the use once more of fountains, which had been swept away and virtually outlawed by Brown.

Historically, the influence of Brown and Repton on water gardening is interesting, but it has little relevance to the gardeners of today, except those with spreading acres at their disposal. All that those of us with smaller plots can learn is the importance of proportion, for without doubt the balance that they achieved between water and uncluttered planting is a lesson to us all.

The Modern Water Garden

It is difficult to determine when water gardening, as we know it today, began, although Philip Miller was probably a major influence. In his Gardeners' Dictionary (1731), he stated: 'In some gardens, I have seen plants cultivated in large troughs of water, where they flourish very well and annually produce great quantities of flowers'. At that time, few people had any awareness of the myriad tropical waterlilies that were being cultivated abroad. This only occurred when Sir Joseph Paxton, head gardener to the Duke of Devonshire at Chatsworth, began hybridizing tropical waterlilies and, in a blaze of publicity, flowered the giant Victoria waterlily for the first time in England. Following the presentation of the first blossom to the Queen, the waterlily was named in her honour. This sparked an interest in water gardening among the aristocracy which, together with the successful production of coloured hardy waterlilies by innovative Frenchman Joseph Bory Latour Marliac towards the end of the century, secured its future as an integral part of modern gardening tradition.

Not everyone was convinced, though, for Reginald Farrer, one of the greatest English gardeners and plant collectors, stated in his classic Alpine and Bog Plants: 'Advice to those about to build a water garden — DON'T'. William Robinson, that other great English gardener, concurred, writing in his English Flower Garden (1895), he says: 'Unclean and ugly pools deface our gardens; some have a mania for artificial water, the effect of water pleasing them so well that they bring it near their houses where they cannot have its good effects. But they have instead filth that gathers in stagnant water and its evil smell on many a lawn'.

Fortunately, these perverse views were short-lived, and with the advent of modern pool liners and pre-formed pools in the 1960s, a water gardening revolution took place.